This text is intended to provide a basic introduction to personal computing applications, parts, operation, and history. A crash course for the novice computer user/purchaser about hardware components, software and operating system basics, introductory internet concepts and applications, as well as a section about determining which type of system is right for you, are included. Suggestions for changes and improvements to the text can be sent to notchent@yahoo.com. Modern IBM compatible computers consist of several essential hardware components: Case: all of the parts fit into a box, or system "case" which has bays and ports for system components like the motherboard, hard drive, CD ROM, disk drives, etc - all described below. The most popular form of case is the "tower", which stands upright to save floor or desk space. Older "desktop" cases perform the same function as tower cases, and additionally, can have a monitor placed on top. Because of the internal layout and use of space, however, tower cases typically have more bays and ports to hold components, and are a little easier to repair and upgrade. Motherboard: the motherboard is the main electronic board to which all other components are connected. It holds the CPU, the RAM memory, and has connectors into which component cables (CD ROM, hard drive, floppy, etc.) are connected, and "Bus" slots into which expansion cards (video card, modem, network adaptor, etc.) are connected. The standard IBM expansion cards fit into "ISA" bus slots that are on all standard motherboards. Newer motherboards also have "PCI" bus slots which hold the newer, faster cards constructed with PCI connectors. The motherboard also contains the "BIOS" - a battery maintained chip which retains the date and time, as well as the current system configuration of the computer (ie., the components you have installed, and their settings). Most motherboards also contain the connectors for keyboards, mice, printers, and serial devices that hook up to the little 9 pin "serial" connector on the back of the computer (joysticks, and other controllers). The motherboard is usually secured to the bottom of a desktop case, or to the side of a tower case. CPU - the "Central Processing Unit" - the chip that controls all of the other components - is plugged directly into a pin pad on the motherboard. You need to buy a motherboard that will support the type of chip you want to use. Most motherboards will support a relatively small range of CPU's. The speed of the CPU chip is measured in "Megahertz" (Mhz). The orginal IBM XT computer had a CPU that ran at 4.7 Mhz. Chips moved on from that original "8086" 4.7 Mhz chip to the "286" (8-16 Mhz), "386" (16-33 Mhz), "486" (25-100 Mhz), "Pentium" (60-233), and "Pentium II" (> 200 Mhz) chips. A pentium 60 Mhz (written P/60) is faster than a 486/66 (even with the faster Mhz rating) because the internal structure of the Pentium chip has a wider "data path" than the 486 - all of the information moves 64 bits at a time in the Pentium, while data in the 486 moves 32 bits at a time. So, although the 486/66 chip works faster, it can only deal with half a much data at a time. Every new generation of chip seems to double the data path of the chip to greatly improve speed. The speed (Mhz) of new chips also seems to approximately double every two years. At the time of this writing in July, 1998 the fastest CPU for PC's was the 400 Mhz Pentium II chip. Other elements like bus speed, hard drive access time, RAM memory, video, and other component issues can dramatically affect the overall speed of the computer, but the heart of the computer's capabilities lie in its CPU. RAM memory - "Random Access Memory" is the workspace that the computer uses while it is turned on. Everything that happens in the computer - all of the information it deals with: programs, data, input, output, etc. - all goes though, and is temporarily manipulated and saved in, the RAM memory. When the computer is shut off, the RAM memory is completely ERASED. Anything that needs to be saved while the computer is turned off (programs, data, etc.) must be SAVED TO DISK to be stored inside the computer while it is without power. RAM memory is measured in the basic unit of the "Byte". A byte is 1 character of information (a letter, number, symbol, etc.). A "Kilobyte" is 1000 bytes (actually it's precisely 1024 bytes, but that's not really important), and a "Megabyte" is 1 million bytes (approximately). The original IBM XT computers usually had between 256k and 640k (256,000 - 640,000) bytes of memory. 286's typically had 1-2M (megs or megabytes - 1,000,000 to 2,000,000 bytes) installed, 386's usually have 2-8M (4 megs is pretty standard for a 386), 486's have 2-64M (8-16 megs is standard), Pentiums have 8-128M (16-64 is a standard setup at the time of this writing). The most common ram chips are called "Simms". They combine several smaller chips onto a board that is several inches wide. There are typically between 2-4 72 pin sockets on the motherboard that the simms plug into. Some simms need to be installed in pairs of two, called "parity". Others can be installed individually, called "non-parity". The newest types of memory chips and sockets are called "dimms". They have a different type of socket, and perform much more quickly. The 386 and some 486 systems use smaller 30 pin Simms, and the older 286's and 8086's use single memory chips that hold only 16-256k of memory and plug directly into pin pads on the motherboard. You need to make sure that the memory chips you buy will fit into the mother board of your computer. Hard drive - the main storage device inside the computer. All of the programs that you run, all of the data you create (letters, spreadsheets, databases, game scores, etc.), are stored on the hard drive. The hard drive (sometimes called the hard disk, or the fixed disk - abbreviated "HD") is installed in one of the internal bays in the case. You don't see the hard drive, but an LED light on the case usually lights up every time it is accessed (a large part of the time that you are using the computer). Without any programs (software) on the hard disk, the computer has nothing to do. The programs contain directions that tell the CPU and the rest of the computer what to do (display specific text and graphics, take specific input from the keyboard, mouse, etc., send output to the screen, printer, modem, sound card, etc.). If you accidently erase part or all of a program on your hard drive, that program will not function properly, or at all. The original IBM hard disk held 10 megs (10 million characters) of information. To run a good 386 or 486 with any type of windows operating system and several large software programs, you should have at least a 120 meg hard drive. Most new systems now come with hard drives measured in "Gigabytes", or BILLIONS of bytes of storage space. One gigabyte is equal to 1000 megabytes. A 3.2 gigabyte (G) hardrive holds 3200 megs, or 3.2 billion bytes. A 540M hardrive is really .54 gigs (about half a gigabyte). As operating systems (Windows 98, NT, etc.) and software programs become more complex and powerful, they take up much more space on the hard drive. Windows 98, for example, can take up to 120 megs or more of hard drive space - as much as Windows 3.1 and many, many programs, all together - took up just a few years ago. Most modern hard drives are made with "IDE" connectors that connect, via an IDE ribbon cable, to the IDE connectors included on standard motherboards. A second standard, called "SCSI" (pronounced "scuzzy"), is included on many motherboards. If your motherboard does not have a SCSI connector, and you want to put a SCSI hard drive in your system (because the best SCSI drives are faster than the best IDE drives), you can buy an adaptor card which plugs into the bus slots on your motherboard that will allow you to use a SCSI device. Floppy disks, CD Roms, and other storage mediums - floppy disks are removable storage mediums (either 3.5 or 5.25 inches wide) that are used to transport, copy, and backup relatively small amounts of program and data information to and from computers. Disks fit into a drive that sits in an externally accessible bay in the computer case. Most computers have at least a single 3.5" floppy drive to read and write floppy disks. The original IBM and many 286 machines shipped only with a floppy drive (no hard drive), because programs at that time fit on the small capacity of the floppy disk. Hard drives were added later to accommodate larger programs and data systems. Until recently, most programs were shipped from the maker and copied onto your computer's hard disk ("installed" on your computer) from floppy diskettes. A standard "high density" 3.5" floppy disk holds 1.44 megs of information (not much compared to any hard drive). In recent years the CD ROM has become the new standard for distributing software and information, because it's capacity is far greater than that of any floppy disk. Unlike floppy disk drives, standard CD ROM drives are "read only" - you can read from them, but not save to them. There are CD-R drives that can write to special CD-R disks, but those cost much more. CD rom speeds are measured in "X" values. To read multimedia (graphics and sound capable) CD's, you need at least a 2x cd rom drive. The current fast value on the market is 32x. CD rom disks can hold 640 megs of information. Other types of drives include Zip drives, tape drives, and other magneto-optical drives that read and write 100M-10G of information (comparible to HD sizes) on disks that are the same size as floppies. 100M zip drives are becoming a standard removable media, similar to the 1.44 3.5" drives that have been used in computers for years. Video Card and Monitor - Video cards are typically plugged into the ISA or PCI slots in the motherboard. They take the output of your computer and send it to a monitor to be viewed. The end of the video card sticks out of the back of the computer case, and the monitor cable is plugged into it. The type of video board you put in a computer determines the number of colors, the number of pixels (dots on the screen), and the quality and speed of the images your computer can create. There are a number of different standards. The original IBM XT shipped with a monochrome (black and white) card and monitor that could only display text and characters. That was quickly changed to a "CGA" card that could display 3 colors and 320 pixels (dots) across the screen, and 240 pixels down the screen. 286's typically came with EGA video: 16 colors and better pixel resolution (more dots). 386's and 486's typically came with VGA cards and monitors: 16, 256, 64,000, or 24 million colors, and usually 640x480 pixels. VGA monitors with 256 colors and 640x480 resolution can produce photo quality graphics - that's a basic standard to remember. More colors can produce dramatically better photo quality. Newer systems typically use Super-VGA cards and monitors with 256, 64,000, or 24,000,000 colors, and 640x480 or more pixels (depending on monitor size). The number of colors and pixels, as well as the speed of display is determined by the amount and quality of video memory on the video card. You need at least 512k of memory to produce the essensial 256 colors and 640x480 resolution needed for photo quality graphics. More colors and larger displays require more memory. The newest video cards have up to 8 megs of video RAM, display millions of colors, millions of pixels, and are able to display large graphics and animation very quickly. Monitors are generally matched up to the video card. If you have a VGA card, you buy a monitor capable of displaying VGA graphics, Super-VGA card - buy a Super-VGA monitor, etc. Newer monitors will work with older cards, and newer cards will drive older monitors - the new components do, however, cost more, and their functions are wasted by being matched up with older components. Some motherboards come with the video included as part of the motherboard, so that you don't need to plug a seperate video card into the bus slots. You just plug the monitor directly into the motherboard, rather than into an added video board. Modem - A card, which plugs into the bus slots on the mother board, that converts computer signals to and from a format that can be sent over phone lines. A standard home or business phone cord plugs into the modem (which sticks out of a port in the back of the computer). A phone can be plugged into a second jack on the modem, so that you don't lose your current number of phone jacks (a phone is not required to operate the modem, the second jack just lets you keep a phone near the computer). Modems are used to connect personal computers to internet service providers, other computer services, and to any other distant computer that has a modem. Using communications software, you can dial the phone and send and recieve data with the computer(s) at the other end. Modems are most often used to download, or copy information and programs to your hard drive, communicate with email, and send and receive graphics, sound, and other types of information with other distant computer users. Many modems also include the ability to send and recieve faxes, which you can save on your hard drive, or print on a printer. External modems can also be purchased. They're usually connected to the serial port on the back of the computer. Sound Card - Sound cards plug into the bus slots on your motherboard, and have speaker outputs and microphone inputs that stick out of a port opening on the back of the computer. Sound cards are used to play and record sounds that are saved on disk in one of several digital formats. ".WAV" files on your hard disk, CD's, or floppies are converted, with sound software, and output through the soundcard and attached speakers. Sounds can also be input and saved on your system using recording software, your sound card, and an attached microphone. Most sound cards also have a built in "synthesizer" which can emulate the sounds of many types of instruments and sound sources. ".MID" or "MIDI" files represent sounds as a series of numbers that indicate pitch, duration, instrument, etc., and can be translated into sounds by the synthesizer on your sound card. Midi files cannot record actual sounds (like your voice saying "hello"), but they take up much less disk space than .wav files, and are most often used for game sounds and other types of background music which can be stored as MIDI information. Sound cards also typically include a "game port" that allows you to connect certain types of joysticks and other game controllers to the computer. Other types of boards and cards: Almost every type of hardware that you can add to a computer is manufactured on cards that are plugged into one of the bus slots on the mother board. Network cards (cards that allow multiple computers to share information and resources like hard drives and printers), television and radio cards, cards for attaching external components like zip drives, cameras, and other media peripherals, etc., are all made to fit into the bus slots. Some peripherals are made to be connected to the printer, or "parallel" port (the wide 25 pin connector on the back of your computer). You can add extra ports, like printer and serial ports, however, by buying a parallel or serial card that plugs into the bus slots and sticks out the back of the computer. Be aware that if you want to add special hardware, you'll need to have an open bus slot of the right type (ISA, PCI, etc.) on your motherboard. Software and Data: While hardware consists of the actual physical components in your computer system, software consists of packages of electronic directions, or "programs" that make your computer perform the way you want it to. A computer by itself is unable to do ANYTHING. Each of the hardware components is made to save, display, convert, and otherwise manipulate bits of data. Software programs tell the CPU and the rest of the computer to display specific text and graphics, take specific input from the keyboard, mouse, etc., send output to the screen, printer, modem, sound card, etc. The main types of software include: Word processors - allow you to write, edit, and format, text, graphics and other elements to create books, letters, and other types of publications. Spreadsheets - allow you to save, organize, and perform calculations on lists of numbers and other data. The premier business application, spreadsheets are useful creating invoices, projections, and any type of layout involving lists and multiple steps of calculations. Data bases - allow you to store and retrieve data in an organized way. Records involving names, dates, addresses, and telephone numbers, for example, can be entered and stored into a standard database form created by the user, and then data from any category can be searched for using data from any other category as search criteria. A doctor's office could, for example, create a database with all of its patients, and their appointment dates. At the beginning of each day, they could search for and print out a list of all appointments for that day, as well as the name and billing information entered for each client. Communications software - software used to communicate with a modem. Many online services such as AOL provide special communications software to their subscribers which dial up and connect to the service, and then display current news, photos, and activity options which are saved on the service's computers. "Browsers" like Netscape and Microsoft Internet Explorer dial up internet service providers and display web pages from the world wide web. Multimedia applications - let you store, browse, edit, convert, and otherwise manipulate graphics, sound, and video files on your computer. Games - 3D games that put you in the center of the action, arcade games, and adventure games that let you play the role of a character in a story (usually with animated graphics and sounds - as if you are there) are the most common. Operating Systems: DOS and Windows - the operating system is the software that controls and ties together all of the components in your computer. The original operating system for IBM compatible computers was called "MS-DOS" or just "DOS". DOS is a "command line" operating system - you type in commands at a "prompt" that usually looks something like "C:\>". If you wanted to run a program, you typed in the name of the program. DOS came with, or actually consisted of, a number of small programs that let you copy, erase, move, and otherwise manipulate programs and data on your hard drive and other disks. It also came with programs that allowed you to set up and control pieces of hardware that make up your computer system, like CD ROMS, video cards, printers, etc. In short, the operating system contains all of the programs that allow you to "operate" the computer. The original DOS operating system has been at the heart of virtually every IBM compatible computer system since the orginal IBM XT. DOS, however, is not so user friendly. When DOS starts, or "boots up", it displays a simple prompt ("C:\"). The user needs to either know by heart, or read out of a book, all of the commands and program names and parameters that make the computer do what he/she wants. A new standard has developed since the late 1980's that makes operating systems much easier to use - for novice and expert users alike. "Windows" operating systems like the original MAC interface and "Windows 95" by Microsoft (for IBM compatibles) provide a graphic interface consisting of icons and menus, which can be clicked on using a "mouse" that moves a pointer around the computer screen. Icons are little pictures that run programs and perform operations inside your computer. Menus are lists of commands, functions, and operations that drop down from the top of the screen when clicked on by a mouse. This system allows users to operate the computer without having to memorize commands and parameters - instead, just by clicking on self-describing pictures and lists. Some basics about using typical operating systems: If you have a computer with a windows environment, using the computer, and the programs on it, will be very self explanatory. To start a program, click on its icon. In Windows 95 and 98, many programs have an icon right on the desktop (the opening screen that comes up when you start the computer). You can also find programs by pressing the "start" button, moving the mouse over the "programs" item, and selecting from the list in the menu that appears. In the top right corner of most programs, there is usually a "help" menu that explains the basics of using the program. Drives, directories, and files names: All of the drives (hard drive, floppy, CD ROM, etc.) in your computer are given names by the operating system. Drive names typically consist of a capital letter, followed by a colon. The main hard drive is most often called the "C:" drive (without quotes). The main floppy disk (usually a 1.44M 3.5" drive) is typically called "A:", and a second floppy (most often a 1.2M 5.25" drive) is called "B:". The primary CD ROM is typically called "D:", and network drives - if your computer is part of an office network, for example - are usually lettered from E: on up. The letters can be changed, depending on the setup of your computer components, but the above letters are typical standards. Files (programs, data, operating system components, etc.) are organized on a disk (HD, floppy, CD, etc.) as names in a "directory tree". Because thousands of files can exist on a disk, seperate lists, or groups, of files are created and given "directory" names. The main directory of a disk often contains directories for each main program on the disk. Each of those program directories may contain subdirectories which further seperate and organize the files that make up each program. The main "root" directory of a HD typically contains some startup files that boot up (start) and initialize (configure) the operating system (ie., tell it what hardware to control, and what software to put on the desktop). Files that make up the windows operating system are usually found in the "windows" directory. The label "windows", followed by a [DIR] label is listed in the root directory. The files contained in the windows directory are not listed in the root listing. To see the files and subdirectories contained in the windows directory, you need to switch to that directory. Likewise, to see the files contained in any subdirectory, you need to first switch to that directory. Most graphical types of operating systems contain a program that lets you view and manipulate the directory structure and files on your hard drive and other disks. In Windows 95, it is a program called "Windows Explorer", which can be run by clicking the right mouse button ("right clicking") while the pointer is placed over the start button. You will see a listing of all of the drives in your computer, along with the directory structure of each disk. Directories typically appear along side a little icon of a file folder. You can switch to (look in) subdirectories by clicking on the name of the directory. You can run (start) any of the programs on your disk by clicking on the name of the program. In older versions of windows (3.1, etc.), the progam you want is called "file manager", found by double clicking on (using two quick clicks of the mouse on) the "main" group, and then the "file manager" icon. It works basically the same way as Windows 95's Explorer. In DOS, you can get a listing of your directory by typing "dir", and then pressing the "return" or "enter" key (depending on how it is labled on your keyboard). You can change directories by typing "cd", a space, then the name of the directory, and pressing return (you always finish a DOS command by hitting return, or enter). "Cd windows", for example, switches you to the windows directory. You could then get a listing of your windows directory by typing "dir". The main directory of any disk is labeled by a "backslash" character: "\". "Cd \" moves you to the root directory of any disk. The DOS prompt usually shows you which disk and directory you are currently "logged onto" (looking in). If you are looking in the root directory of hard disk C:, your DOS prompt should look like: C:\>, followed by a blinking cursor (the "greater than" symbol, ">", along with the cursor, just shows that the computer is waiting for you to type some input - a command like "cd", "dir", etc.). All other directories are preceded by a backslash. If you are in the windows directory, in the subdirectory called "system", the prompt will appear as "C:\windows\system>". The full name of any file on any disk includes the drive name (A:, C:, etc.), followed by the directory name, including backslash (ie., \windows), followed by the name of the file. A file in a "games" directory on a CD ROM may be called "D:\games\game1.exe". Directory and file names can be up to 8 characters long, with a 3 character "extension". A filename appears as "name.extension". Program files usually have the extensions ".exe" or ".com". The program that starts windows, for example, is usually called "win.com". Text files usually have the extension ".txt". Word processor documents often have the extension ".doc". File formats used by the operating system, and those created by particular software programs are typically given a standard extension, so that they can be easily identified by the user and the program itself. Evaluating a computer system for your needs: In evaluating computer systems, the most important concept to understand is that software developments and improved applications are really the innovations that create the need for better and faster systems. If all you need to do with a computer is write letters, maintain simple business records, store a recipe database, play some games with basic graphics and sound, and run other traditional applications, you DON'T need the newest system. You can do all of those things comforably with the original IBM XT computer! You just need to use software that was MADE TO RUN ON THAT SYSTEM - there are still thousands of programs available for those systems. You can download them from the Internet or buy them from used software retailers - there are sources in every city and everywhere in cyberspace. If you want to get on the Internet with your computer, you should get at least a 386 computer - a 486 is more practical because it won't be so slow, and a Pentium is even better if you do a huge amount of internet work and play, but it's NOT necessary for comfortable use. If you want to set up a large network in your company, and you need a computer that will function as the main server for the whole system, from which many people will be drawing resources at the same time, it's best to get the most modern system with the fastest processor, most RAM memory, largest hard drive, and all the bells and whistles. Remember, the original IBM XT sold for about $15,000 15 years ago, and it was supremely functional at the time. There were thousands of business, personal and game applications (programs) written for it that satisfied virtually every need of the user. As manufacturing technology was improved, better systems were created that did more and cost less. The functions of the computer expanded, and the speed and quality of the systems' output improved, making the original XT obsolete. Every year prices on the previous year's technology drop incredibly, and prices for the newest systems stay at about the same rate. The computer that does everything this year will be surpassed next year by a new standard that costs about the same. This year's system will be obsolete, but it will be no less functional then it is now. The new system will just have increased memory, speed, and HD capacity, as well as some new bells and whistles, but the basic functionality will be the same. The system that you drool about now will seem less capable in comparison. That cycle occurs at an alarming rate - new standards are developed every six months or so, making it hard to judge what is "good". What you need to do is to determine FIRST what your requirements are. What do you want to do with your computer system now and in the future, and how much money do you want to spend? If you can do everything with the $50 286 system, and you are pinching pennies, then it's best not to dish out $2999 for the 400 Mhz pentium - remember that system will cost MUCH less in a year or two anyways. Decide what you want from your computer, leave a little room for improvement, and spend only as much as you need. If you find out down the road that you are experiencing growing pains and need a better system, the system that costs more today will probably be the low end model and cost much less in a few years. Remember, the newest system will be "obsolete" (but still JUST AS FUNCTIONAL) in just a few years. THE INTERNET: The internet basically consists of a large number of supercomputers around the world that are directly connected by fast cable or satelite technology. These computers send, receive, and store large amounts of information very quickly. Originally set up by the government and large corporate leaders, the internet "backbone" of supercomputers has been largely expanded and maintained by commercially owned services like AOL, ATT, MSN, and many others. Services of that sort set up "points of presence" all around the US and the world, which consist of a number of modems in strategic locations, to which any person who has a computer and modem (and who pays a required service fee) can dial up and connect to the internet. When connected to their computer via modem, you are also connected to all of the other computers on the internet backbone, to which it is connected. You can access the gazillions of bytes of information and software that are contained on all of the millions of "server" computers connected to the internet. Anyone can pay the owner of an internet server computer (many of the same companies) to store some of their information on a supercomputer that is on the internet backbone. Files that are placed (ie., stored) on an internet server can be accessed by others who have internet access. That provides an amazing way for people to share computerized information on this huge "information highway" or "cyberspace". The majority of files now on internet servers are stored in the form of "web pages". Web pages are simply a specific format, or layout, for information, that is accessible by a web "browser" program. Web pages can include text, pictures, sound, video, programs, and other information that can be viewed and used by people who are connected to the internet by modem, via a browser program. The two most common browser programs are Netscape Navigator (or Communicator) and Microsoft Internet Explorer. Those programs dial the phone using your modem, connect to the internet service provider (MSN, ATT, etc.), and let you type in the "address" of any web page on any computer on the internet (ie., "http://www.fakeinternetaddress.com"). Most companies now have web pages on the internet that let you view and order products and services, receive technical support, review their history, learn about related topics, etc. - all without ever having to call on the phone and speak to another human. Many educational institutions, as well as companies, government agencies, and an onslaught of private parties have created internet web sites that teach you about various subjects, let you download programs, graphics, video, sound, and text, let you retrieve records and databases, and so on, and on, and on... The major word processing programs like Wordperfect and Microsoft Word can now output anything you type in as a web page (in a format called "html"), so anybody can create and store web pages on the internet as easily as typing a letter to a friend. The Internet now contains over 70,000,000 publically accessible web sites, and that number grows by amazing leaps and bounds every year! ANYTHING that you want to learn about can be found on the internet. The internet is so packed with information, in fact, that the problem often isn't that the information that you are looking for can't be found on the internet - it's DEFINATELY out there. The problem is that it's hard to find in the MILLIONS of web pages that exist. To help with that, many companies and agencies have created "seach engines" and directories that help you pin down web sites containing information on exactly the subject you are looking for. Web sites like "Yahoo" (http://www.yahoo.com), "Altavista" (http://www.altavista.com), "Excite" (http://www.excite.com), "Hotbot" (http://www.hotbot.com), "Infoseek" (http://www.infoseek.com), "Lycos" (http://www.lycos.com), "Magellan" (http://www.magellan.com), and hundreds of others, let you type in keywords that relate to the subject you are looking for. They list the pages in their index that relate to your topics - typing in even the most obscure topics can often yield hundreds of thousands of web site addresses containing information about the subject. You click on the address of the site that interests you, and you are instantly transported there (the website is displayed by your browser program). Whether it is located on a server in your town, or on the other side of the world, you can receive that web page, and everything it contains, virtually instantly through your modem. One of the nice things about web pages is that they typically contain "links" to other pages. A page about horses may list a number of other site addresses pertaining to the same subject. You can start at one address in a search engine, and end up visiting ten others just by linking from one page to the next. No matter what your interest, there is an unimaginable amount of (mostly free) information - text, pictures, multimedia, programs, etc. - about it on the internet. The Internet is also a great way to communicate with other people. Most browsers allow you to "chat", or type in real time, with other people on the internet, as well as send instant electronic messages, or "e-mail", to others through your internet service provider. When you buy a subcription to an internet service provider, you are typically given an internet email address to which other people can send you email. You access your email account to read and send mail by using the built in capabilities of your browser or by using a seperate email program. Most email names consist of a name you create, followed by the "@" (pronounced "at"), followed by the name of your email service provider: notchent@yahoo.com is the email address of this author, for example. Changes: Changes happen at an incredible rate of speed in computer science, and there is always more to learn. This primer is intended to provide only a basic understanding of current home computer topics. Please email me at notchent@aol.com if you have suggestions for additions or changes to this text. The author of this text owns a small used computer sales company named Notch Enterprises. You can view a list of the current stock at http://members.aol.com/notchent/complist.htm Prices for complete systems start at $50.